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CitizenshipNationalityNaturalizationLeave to RemainImmigrationIllegal immigrationStatelessnessCitizenNative-born citizenNaturalized citizenDual-citizenAlienMigrant workerRefugeeIllegal immigrantPolitical prisonerStateless personAdministrative detaineeImmigration lawPalgrimNationality lawNationalismNativism (politics)Immigration debateIllegal immigrationimmigrationnationalborders

in a way that violates the immigration lawscountry. Under this definition, an illegal immigrant is a foreigner who either has illegally crossed an international political border, be it by land, water, or air, or a foreigner who has entered a country legally but then overstays his/her visapolitics, the term may imply a larger set of social issuestime constraints with disputed consequences in areas such as

economysocial welfareeducationhealth careslaveryprostitutioncrimelegal protectionsvoting rightspublic serviceshuman rightsemigration

would be leaving a country in a manner that violates the laws of the country being exited.United StatesOne motive of illegal immigration is to escape civil warrepression in the country of origin. For example, people in Germany that were considered minorities fled their country in fear that they would be oppressed and arrested. Non-economic push factors include persecution (religious and otherwise), frequent abusebullyingoppressiongenocide, and risks to civilians during war. Political motives traditionally motivate refugeedictatorshipAfter decades of armed conflict, roughly one of every 10 Colombians now lives abroad. For example, Colombians emigrating to Spain have grown exponentially, from a little over 7,000 in 1993 to more than 80,000 in 2002 and 244,000 in 2003. This is equivalent to 124,000 Colombian immigrants in year 2003 into Spain alone. Also, figures from the U.S. Department of Homeland SecurityColombia is the fourth-leading source country of unauthorized

immigration to the United Statesestimatesunauthorized

Colombian residents in the United States almost tripled from 51,000 in 1990 to 141,000 in 2000. According to the US Census Bureau, the number of authorized Colombian immigrants in the United States in 2000 was 801,363. Census data are important because, as the Department of Homeland Security states, [U.S.] census data are more complete and reliable [than INS data] because of the national scope of the data collection, the vastly larger data sample, and the extensive preparation and follow-up activities involved in conducting the decennial census. El Salvador is another example where emigration resulted from civil war and repression. The largest per-capita source of immigrants to the United States comes from El Salvador, for which up to a third of the population lives outside the country, mostly in the United States. According to the Santa Clara County, California, Office of Human Relations.Some illegal immigrants seek to live with loved ones, such as a spouse or other family members. This is particularly true for the families of binational same sex couples. The Lesbian and Gay Immigration Rights Task Force (LGIRTF) warns binational same sex couples in the United States that marriage may actually increase the likelihood of becoming undocumented, rather than decreasing[4][5] Other individuals seek to distance themselves from their spouses.One cause of illegal immigration can be poverty. This is the case in the United States, where illegal immigrants traditionally have entered the country in search of wages higher than those achievable in their home countries. The case of U.S. Marine Lance Corporal Jose Gutierrez is atypical, but it serves to demonstrate how poor immigrants enter the United States illegally in search for a better tomorrow. According to CBS60 Minutes, U.S. Marine Lance Corporal Jose Gutierrez, one of the first U.S. servicemen to die in combat in Iraqstreet childGuatemala having been orphaned at age 8. Gutierrez, 60 Minutes reports, first entered the United States as an illegal immigrant in 1997 to escape poverty, and dreamed of becoming an architect.The chief cause of illegal immigration is considered to be economic. Illegal immigrants in the United States traditionally have been portrayed as seeking jobs and wages better than those available in their home countries. For example, the 1994 economic crisis in Mexico was associated with widespread poverty and a lower valuation for the peso relative to the dollar . The United States Department of Labor calculates that the Zone A (most industrialized) minimum wage in Mexico in 1999 was 34.45 pesos, or about US3.50 per day . The Zone C (rural/agricultural) minimum wage was 29.70 Pesos a day, or roughly US3.02 a day . By contrast, the U.S. minimum is set at 5.85 per hour under US federal Law“>law, and many States required rates higher than the federally mandated minimum.

Natural disastersoverpopulationpovertyPopulation growthcarrying capacity

of an area or environment results in overpopulation Spikes in human population can cause problems such as pollutionwater crisispovertyWorld population has grown from 1.6 billion in 1900 to an estimated 6.6 billion today. In Mexico alone, population has grown from 13.6 million in 1900 to 107 million in 2007.United Nations estimated that the worlds population was growing at the rate of 1.14 (or about 75 million people) per year. According to data from the CIAs 20052006 World Factbooks, the world human population currently increases by 203,800 every day.Census Bureau issued a revised forecast for world population that increased its projection for the year 2050 to above 9.4 billion people, up from 9.1 billion people. We are adding a billion more every 12 years. Almost all growth will take place in the less developed regions.As with any illicit activity, illegal immigrants expose themselves to dangers while engaged in illegal entry to another country. Aside from the possibility that they may be intercepted and deported, some considerably more dangerous outcomes have been known to result from their activity. As an example, illegal immigrants may been traffickedAfter the end of the legal international slave tradeEuropean nations and the United States in the early 19th century, the illegal importation of slaves has continued, albeit at much reduced levels. Although not as common as in Europe, Asia, Africa and Latin America, some Women“>women are undoubtedly smuggled into the United States and Canada.People been kidnapped or tricked into slavery to work as laborers, for example in factories. Those trafficked in this manner often face additional barriers to escaping slavery, since their status as illegal immigrants makes it difficult for them to gain access to help or services. For example Burmese Women“>women trafficked into Thailand and forced to work in factories or as prostitutes may not speak the language and may be vulnerable to abuse by police due to their illegal immigrant status.Dominican Republic, Haitian migrant workers are sold into slavery on Dominican Sugar plantations, including children.white slave trade referred to the smuggling of Women“>women, almost always under duress or fraud, for the purpose of forced prostitution. Now more generically called sexual slavery it continues to be a problem, particularly in Eastern EuropeMiddle East though there has been an increase in the number of cases in the U.S. [6][7] Some Haitian children have allegedly been forced to work as prostitutes in the Dominican sexual tourism industry. Currently the Dominican sex trade ranks third in the world, only behind Thailand and the Philippines.raped has become a problem for some Women“>women illegally entering another country. After the coyotes get the Women“>women across the [U.S.-Mexico] border, safely on U.S. soil, they gang rape them to show they have total control over them. They hang their panties in the trees as signs of the conquest. . . If the Women“>women are young and pretty, they are kept in houses of prostitution where they have to have their families buy them out or work their way out. Of course, none will testify to this because the coyotes know where they are from and can seek revenge on their families in Mexico. Allegations have been made that thousands of illegal immigrants attempting to reach Europe have died since 1986.In the Mediterranean Sea, and through the Atlantic Ocean toward Spain In the Sicily channel 1,929 people died along the routes from LibyaTunisiaMaltaItaly, including 1,118 missing; 33 other people drowned sailing from Algeria to Sardinia. Along the routes from

MauritaniaMoroccoAlgeriaSpainGibraltar StraitCanary Islands

, at least 2,929 people died, including 1,206 who were missing. 514 people died in the Aegean seaTurkeyGreece, including 252 missing. 474 people died in the Adriatic sea, between Albania, Montenegro and Italy, including 136 missing. Not all illegal immigrants travel in makeshift boats. 148 men died by asphyxiation or drowning in registered cargo vessels.In order to arrive to the sea, the dangerous passage of the Sahara is necessary. People have crossed it on trucks and off-road vehicles along the tracks between SudanChadNigerMali one one side and Libya and Algeria on the other. On this passage at least 1,069 people have died since 1996. The Libyan, Algerian and Morocan Governments have been accused of abandoning hundreds of migrants in open desert border areas.Abuse has been reported of migrants in Libya. There are not any official data, but in 2006 Human Rights Watch and AFVIC accused Tripoli of arbitrary arrests, beatings and tortures in the migrant detention centers, three of which are financed by Italy. In September 2000 in Zawiyah, in northwest Libya, at least 560 foreigners were killed in racist attacks.247 stowaways in trucks were found dead in Albania, France, Germany, Greece, Turkey, U.K., Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain and Hungary.There are still minefields along the Evros river between the Greece-Turkey border. At least 88 people are reported to have been killed in these minefields.Additionally, 51 persons drowned crossing rivers delimiting the frontier between Croatia and Bosnia; Turkey and Greece; Slovakia and Austria; and Slovenia and Italy. Forty-one people froze to death travelling over the icy mountains at the border between Turkey, Greece and Slovakia; 20 people died under the trains in the Channel tunnel trying to reach England; 33 people were shot dead by Spanish and Moroccan police or injured along the border fence of Ceuta and Melilla Spanish enclaves in Morocco; 11 people burnt when a deportation center in the Netherlands caught fire; 11 people were killed by Turkish, French and Yugoslav policemen; and 8 men were found dead hidden in the undercarriages of planes.Death by exposure is also known to occur in the deserts of Southwestern United States during the hot summer season. Immigrants from nations that do not have automatic visa agreements, or who would not otherwise qualify for a visa, often cross the borders illegally in some areas like the United StatesMexico border, the Mona Channel between the

Dominican RepublicPuerto RicoStrait of GibraltarFuerteventuraStrait of Otranto

. Because these methods are illegal, they are often dangerous. Would-be immigrants have been known to suffocate in shipping containersboxcars[8]shipwrecks caused by unseaworthy vessels [9]dehydration[10]exposure during long walks without water. An official estimate puts the number of people who died in illegal crossings across the U.S.-Mexican border between 1998 and 2004 at 1,954 (see

immigrant deaths along the U.S.-Mexico borderHuman smuggling

is the practice of intermediaries aiding illegal immigrants in crossing over international borders in financial gain, often in large groups. Human smuggling differs from, but is sometimes associated with, human trafficking. A human smuggler will facilitate illegal entry into a country for a fee, but on arrival at their destination, the smuggled person is usually free. Trafficking involves a process of using physical force, frauddeception to obtain and transport people.Types of notorious human smugglers include Snakeheadgangsmainland ChinaFujian) that smuggle laborers into Pacific RimChinatowns frequent centers of illegal immigration) [11] and coyotes, who smuggle illegal immigrants to the Southwestern United States and have been known to abuse or even kill their passengers. [12] Sometimes immigrants are abandoned by their human traffickers if there are difficulties, often dying in the process. Others may be victims of intentional killing. In many spots on the US-Mexico border, there are rape trees on which either condoms or the undergarments of Women“>women sexually abused by the coyotes are hung as trophies. [13][14][15][16]Some illegal immigrants enter a country legally and then overstay or violate their visa[17] For example, most of the estimated 200,000 illegal immigrants in Canada (perhaps as high as 500,000), are refugee claimants whose refugee applications were rejected but who have not yet been ejected from the country.A related way of becoming an illegal immigrant is through bureaucratic means. For example, a person can be allowed to remain in a country – or be protected from expulsion – because he/she needs special pension for a medical condition, etc., without being able to regularize his/her situation and obtain a work and/or residency permit, let alone naturalization. Hence, categories of people being neither illegal immigrants nor legal citizens are created, living in a judicial no mans land. Another example is formed by children of foreigners born in countries observing (right of territory), such as France. In that country, one may obtain French nationality if one is born in France – but, due to recent legislative changes, it is only granted at the age of eighteen, and only upon request.A third way to enter a country is to engage in a sham marriage, registering as married with the government for the purpose of obtaining papers for one half of the partnership in exchange for monetary or other considerations. The first U.S. case involving one of these marriages arranged over the Internet“>internet is currently being prosecuted. [18]Many countries have had or currently have laws restricting immigration for economic or nationalistic political reasons. Whether a person is permitted to stay in a country legally may be decided by quotas or point systems or may be based on considerations such as family ties (marriage, elderly mother, etc.). Exceptions relative to political refugees or to sick people are also common. Immigrants who do not participate in these legal proceedings or who are denied permission under them and still enter or stay in the country are illegal immigrants. [19]Most countries have laws requiring workers to have proper documentation, often intended to prevent or minimize the employment of unauthorized immigrants. However the penalties against employers are often small and the acceptable identification requirements vague and ill-defined as well as being seldom checked or enforced, making it easy for employers to hire unauthorized labor. Unauthorized immigrants are especially popular with many employers because they can pay less than the legal minimum wage or have unsafe working conditions, secure in the knowledge that few unauthorized workers will report the abuse to the authorities. Often the minimum wages in one country can be several times the prevailing wage in the unauthorized immigrants country, making even these jobs attractive to the unauthorized worker.In response to the outcry following popular knowledge of the HolocaustUnited Nations held an international conference on refugees, where it was decided that refugees (legally defined to be people who are persecuted in their original country and then enter another country seeking safety) should be exempted from immigration laws. [20] It is, however, up to the countries involved to decide if a particular immigrant is a refugee or not, and hence whether they are subject to the immigration controls.freedom of movement of an individual within National borders is often contained within the constitutionhuman rights legislation but these rights are restricted to citizens and exclude all others. Some argue that the freedom of movement both within and between countries is a basic human right and that nationalism and immigration policies of state governments violate this human right that those same governments recognize within their own borders. According to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, fundamental human rights are violated when citizens are forbidden to leave their country. (Article 13). This, however, only assists immigrants with the first part of their immigration process and does not assist with the second, finding a new home.Since illegal immigrants without proper legal status have no valid identification documents such as identity cards, they may have reduced or no access to public health systems, proper housing, educationbanks. This lack of access may result in the creation or expansion of illegal underground forgery to provide this documentation. [21]When the authorities are overwhelmed in their efforts to stop illegal immigration, they have historically provided amnesty. Amnesties, which are becoming less tolerated by the citizenry, [22] waive the subject to deportation clause associated with illegal aliens.Illegal immigration has been a relatively important factor in recent Argentine demographics. Most illegal immigrants come from BoliviaParaguayArgentina to the north. Smaller numbers arrive from

ChileUruguayBrazilUkrainePeruEcuadorRomaniaDominican RepublicCuba

and the Peoples Republic of China. The Argentine government estimates that 750,000 inhabitants lack official documents and has launched a program called Patria Grande (Greater Homeland), to encourage illegal immigrants to regularize their status; so far some 200,000 applications have been processed under the program.Chile has recently become a new pole of attraction for illegal immigrants, mostly from the neighboring countries such as PeruBolivia. According to the national census of 2002 the foreign populations have increased by 75 since 1992.[23]Peoples Republic of China is building a security barrier along its border with North Korea to prevent the illegal immigrants from North Korea.The European Union is developing a common system for immigration and asylum and a single external border control strategy.France, helping an illegal immigrant (providing shelter, for example) is prohibited by a Law“>law passed on December 27, 1994 under the cohabitation between socialist President Franois Mitterrand and right-wing Prime Minister Edouard Balladur[24]. The Law“>law was heavily criticized by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such as the CIMADE and the GISTI, left-wing political parties such as the GreensFrench Communist Partytrade-unions such as the magistrates The Turkish newspaper Hrriyet published stories once in July 2004 and a second time in May 2006Hellenic Coast Guard ships were caught on film cruising as near as a few hundred meters off the Turkish coast and abandoning clandestine immigrants to the sea. This practice allegedly resulted in the drowning of six people between ChiosKaraburun Peninsula26 September2006 while three others disappeared and 31 were saved by Turkish gendarmes and fishermen. However, there are numerous non-Turkish claims and testimonies that Turkish authorities and/or citizens lead immigrants through the sea, often resulting to the abandonment and sometimes drowning of said immigrants.Albanian borders in 1991, a huge influx of Albanian economic migrants crossed illegally into Greece in order to find work. They are currently estimated at about 600,000-800,000, but an accurate calculation is very difficult because of the large percentage of illegal immigrants.Indo-Bangladeshi barrier is a 4,000-kilometer fence India is presently constructing to seal off the Indian-Bangladeshi international border of India from Bangladesh This obstruction will virtually isolate Bangladesh from the rest of India. The barriers plan is based on the designs of the Israeli West Bank barrier and will be 3.6m high. The stated aim of the fence is to stop infiltration of terrorists, prevent smuggling, and to bring a close to the illegal immigration from Bangladesh.Since late April 2007, the Iranian government has forcibly deported back to Afghanistan nearly 100,000 registered and unregistered Afghans living and working in Iran. The forceful evictions of the refugees, who have lived in Iran and Pakistan“>Pakistan for nearly three decades, are part of the two countries larger plans to repatriate all Afghan refugees within a few years. Iran says it will send 1,000,000 by next March, and Pakistan“>Pakistan announced that all 2,400,000 Afghan refugees, most living in camps, must return home by 2009. Experts say it will be disastrous for Afghanistan.Libya is home to a large illegal Sub-Saharan African population which numbers as much as 2,000,000. The mass expulsion plan to summarily deport all undocumented foreigners was announced by Libyan leader Colonel Muammar al-Gaddafi in January 2008. No resident without a legal visa will be excluded.Indian Malaysian was recently sentenced to whipping and 10 months in prison for hiring six illegal immigrants at his restaurant. I think that after this, Malaysian employers will be afraid to take in foreign workers (without work permits). They will think twice, said immigration department prosecutor Azlan Abdul Latiff. This is the first case where an employer is being sentenced to caning, he told. Illegal immigrants also face caning before being deported. There are an estimated 800,000 illegal immigrants in MalaysiaIn the first six months of 2005 alone, more than 120,000 people from Central America have been deported to their countries of origin. This is a significantly higher rate than in 2002, when for the entire year, only 130,000 people were deported [25]. Another important group of people are those of Chinese origin, who pay about 5,500 to smugglers to be taken to Mexico from Hong Kong. It is estimated that 2.4 of rejections for work permits in Mexico correspond to Chinese citizens [26]Eastern EuropeAsiaCentralSouth America are also offered jobs at table dance establishments in large cities throughout the country causing the National Institute of Migrationstrip clubs and deport foreigners who work without the proper documentation [27]. In 2004, the INM deported 188,000 people at a cost of [28]. Illegal immigration of Cubans through Cancn tripled from 2004 to 2006. [29]Russia experiences a constant flow of immigration. On average, 200,000 legal immigrants enter the country every year; about half are ethnic Russians from the other republics of the former Soviet Union. In addition, there are an estimated 10-12 million illegal immigrants in the country. There is a significant inflow of ethnic GeorgiansArmeniansAzerbaijanisTajiksUzbeks into big Russian cities, something that is viewed very unfavorably by many citizens and even gives rise to nationalist Many immigrant ethnic groups have much higher birth rates than native Russians, further shifting the balance. Some Chinese flee the overpopulation and birth control regulations of their home country and settle in the Far EastSiberia. Russias main Pacific port and naval base of Vladivostok, once closed to foreigners, today is bristling with Chinese markets, restaurants and trade houses. Experts predict that the Chinese diasporaRussia will increase to at least 10 million by 2010 and Chinese may become the dominant ethnic group in the Russian Far East region 20 to 30 years from now.Saudi Arabia has begun construction of a separation barrier or fence between its territory and Yemen to prevent the unauthorized movement of people and goods into and out of the Kingdom.In 2006 Saudi Arabia proposed plans for the construction of a security fence along the entire length of its 560 mile (900km) desert border with Iraq“>Iraq in a multimillion-pound project to secure the Kingdoms borders in order to improve internal security, control illegal immigration and bolster its defences against external threats. Refugees from Iraq“>Iraq have increased in number since the US-led invasion into Iraq“>Iraq in March 2003. The United Nations estimates that nearly 2,200,000 Iraqis have fled the country since 2003, with nearly 100,000 fleeing to SyriaJordan Most ventured to Jordan and Syria, creating demographic shifts that have worried both governments. Refugees are mired in poverty as they are generally barred from working in their host countries.Syrian authorities worried that the new influx of refugees would limit the countrys resources. Sources like oil, heat, water and electricity were said to be becoming more scarce as demand had gone up. On October 1, 2007 news agencies reported that Syria re-imposed restrictions on Iraqi refugees, as stated by a spokesperson for the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Under Syrias new rules, only Iraqi merchants, businessmen and university professors with visasembassiesTurkey receives many economic migrants from nearby countries such as

ArmeniaGeorgiaAzerbaijanIranAfghanistanCentral AsiaPakistanIraq War

seriously aggravated the illegal immigration problem in Turkey, with the global parties directly involved often extending a lesser helping hand than Turkey itself to resolve the precarious situation of immigrants stranded in passage.Illegal immigration has been a longstanding issue in the United States, creating immense controversy. Harvard University economist George Borjas explains that the controversy centers around the huge redistribution [of wealth] away from [unskilled American] workers to [American employers] who use immigrants. In 2007, President Bush called for Congress to endorse his guest worker proposal, stating that immigrants took jobs that Americans would not take. Pew Hispanic Center notes that while the number of legal immigrants (including LPRs, refugees, and asylees) arriving has not varied substantially since the 1980s, the number of illegal aliens has increased dramatically and, since the mid 1990s, has surpassed the number of legal immigrants. [30] Penalties for employers who hire illegal immigrants range from 2,000-10,000 and up to six months imprisonment.

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Six teams managed to finish the 55-mile course at the Darpa Urban Challenge finals on Saturday, with CMUs Tartan Racing taking the checkered flag and a 2 million grand prize. Teams fielded by Stanford and Virginia Tech finished second (1 million) and third (500,000), respectively. Wired has excellent coverage of the finals and the awards ceremony.While I normally tend towards reporting on the more sober details of the Urban Challenge, I have to admit that I couldnt resist watching this Video“>video of Axion Racings Spirit unmanned vehicle crashing into a human-driven chase car. Reports indicate that there wasnt too much damage to the driver, or to either of the vehicles. Nonetheless, events like this underscore the potential for mishaps in this high-tech endeavor. Whats really amazing is to watch a Video“>video like the one below, where Virginia Techs Victor Tango robot completes the merging task properly.One of the interesting things that struck me as I was looking at the photos and videos from the National Qualifying Event is how many sponsor stickers there are on the vehicles. From Google to Red Bull, the Urban Challenge seems to be heading for a timespot on ESPN2, or at least TLC. Clearly, the marketers at the sponsor companies felt that the lead competitors, like CMU and Stanford, would be garnering their fair share of eyeballs. This AP article covers the commercialization of the Grand Challenge events, with the head of DARPA intimating that the high degree of sponsor interest may mean that its time for the organization to move on to less-well-funded research priorities.Heres a nice Video“>video clip from Tartan Racing, showing Boss, their Urban Challenge entry, doing an excellent job on the qualifying course. The road-following is a little unnerving at times, especially the in-camera footage. I still dont think someone would mistake this for a human driver, but its still pretty impressive, especially when Boss rolls up to a stop sign and stops right on the line.This past weekend saw the start of the qualification rounds for the 2007 Urban Challenge. While theres a lot of day-to-day robotics engineering going on, much of the coverage in the news media has focused on the possibility for specatular robot-wars-style crashes. And, sure enough, Sting Racing complied by

ramming its Porsche Cayenne into a barrierThis story

in the Ventura County Star does a much better job of capturing the true goings-on.Were a little behind on our blogging here at darpagrandchallenge.com, but its worth noting that DARPA has announced the list of the thirty-six semifinalist teams (here), and also that the finals will be held on the grounds of the former George AFB in Victorville, CA. The competition site is apparently used as an urban battlefield training ground by the Army, so it sounds like a good fit, and its doubtful that the Urban Challenge vehicles will be able to do more damage than Army live-fire exercises.Im sure he meant it in all seriousness, but DARPA Director Tony Tether said of the competition, The vehicles must perform as well as someone with a California Drivers License. Nothing against Golden State residents, but Im not sure if thats an adequate requirement for autonomous operation…Meet Junior, Stanfords entry into the 2007 Urban Challenge. Junior is a 2007 VW Passat. As you can see, Junior has already been festooned with sponsor logos — VW, Intel, Google, and, uh, Red Bull. Guess we know whats keeping their programmers and engineers going through those late-night build sessions.The official spec sheet explains the basics: platform and drive train by VW, high-resolution LIDAR for 3D imagery, a 6-way camera system, and an Applanix GPS set with 35 cm positional accuracy. Data processing is courtesy of an unspecified number of Intel Core 2 Duo processors. All this hardware probably draws some serious current — the specs mention that VW fitted a special prototype high-output alternator to keep everything well-fed.Thats it for now; well see what we can dig up in the coming weeks. Read more at the Stanford team web siteGizmag recently discussed the history of government-sponsored contests as a driving force for new technology innovation. The ancestor of todays Grand Challenge was the prize awarded to John Harrison for developing a method for measuring longitude at sea. The prize was open for nearly 60 years; Harrison himself labored on the solution for more than 30. In a demonstration of how such a prize can produce benefits for everyday life, Harrisons ultimate solution was … a pocket watch capable of keeping accurate time, something Im sure we all can appreciate. You can read more about the longitude prize and Harrisons work at the British National Maritime Museum siteReigning Grand Challenge champion Stanford has been getting the lions share of the Urban Challenge press, but there are lots of other teams out there working to win some recognition. This recent story shows how the Challenge is helping to spawn new ventures like Blacksburgs TORC Technologies, who are earning their chops as sub-contractors for Virginia Techs robot team.Ready for the challenge – Roanoke.comFor those just tuning in, the San Jose Mercury News has a nice capsule reviewing the history of the Grand Challenge events.A SHORT HISTORY OF DARPAS GRAND CHALLENGEWhile the DARPA Grand Challenge (and upcoming Urban Challenge) are both fascinating tests of engineering skill, there hasnt been much focus on the ultimate use of the resulting technology. DARPA, after all, is the research and development branch of the US Department of Defense. Alternative blog Infoshop is featuring a 2-part analysis of the ethics of using robots for warfighting. No matter what your views on the subject, this is a well-thought-out document; Part 1 leads off with Asimovs First Law“>Law of Robotics.

Infoshop News – Social and Ethical Implications of Warfare Robotics
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(S) Rezzibo Beautifully designed RSS/Atom aggregator, Spanish with English translation forthcoming (R) Rocket RSS Reader Folder style aggregator (R) Rojo Tag-based news aggregator RSS2GIF enables you to convert RSS feeds to GIF files. RssPress.it Italian free RSS/Atom news aggregator RSSASabkuch Newsan RSS/Atom News aggregator for various categories with archives. slashgeo Community-driven ad-free slash-based News aggregator for GIS, RS and everything geospatial. Sofomo Simplified news aggregator Stevens News Service Fast easy-to-use RSS/Atom aggregator (R) We Do The PingYodPod A free web-based aggregator. Optional registration. Yuva News Aggregator (R)- Requires registration (S)- requires one time manual submission of RSS feed AmphetaDesk was an open source syndicated news aggregator. Although once cutting-edge, in early Morbus Iff moved on to other projects. (Mac, Windows, Linux) BlogBridge is a free, open source reader which runs on Microsoft Windows, Linux. The free BlogBridge service syncs your feed list between desktops. RSSOwl is an open source Java RSS news reader. RSS2PDF enables you to view RSS feeds as PDF files. AgileRSS is a java aggregator that runs on Windows, Unix, linux and MacOsX. endo. 21 day trial, US18. By the makers of ectoNews Reader is an RSS widget for Dashboard. NetNewsWireNewsAccessNewsFirePheeder A extensible RSS / XML reader. Postinoshrookcooperate to monitor feedsVienna supports RSS and Atom feeds (open source hence free). Marcel (imum.info net-reader) feed reader (RSS/Atom/LS1), original and ultra-simplified. One feed in one page, no popup. (Free, english/french, for Windows). Alertbear offers a river of news style view via a stack of feed items, instead of the usual email style view of other readers. Awasu – monitoring information from any source. Newsplorer is a fully skinnable news reader application that integrates with the online bookmarking service del.icio.us Companion Desktop Companion Desktop is the latest configurable news reader with preconfigured categories. Twins WebNews Twins WebNews is an RSS and ATOM news reader, that works like an e-mail client. RSS Xpress is a free Atom/RSS reader (requires .NET Framework v1.1). FeedTray is a tiny RSS/Atom/podcast news reader that quietly sits in your task tray and monitors any number of news feeds (requires .NET Framework v2). Feedreader is a lightweight open-source aggregator that supports RSS and ATOM formats. It works under Windows 95 and later versions. BitsCast is a free rich media RSS reader/aggregator integrating Microsoft JET database engine with rich media (news audio (podcast) Video“>video (vlog) software delivery BitTorrent attachment) download/search/playback. SharpReader SharpReader is an RSS/Atom Aggregator. BlogBridge BlogBridge is an RSS/Atom Aggregator that supports Reading Lists (requires Java). Awasu is a fully-featured news reader with both free and commercial versions. CITA RSS Aggregator is a free Windows aggregator that also supports podcasts, BitTorrents and secure feeds (requires .NET Framework v2). FeedDemon is a hybrid online/offline RSS reader. FeedExplorer Freeware, Outlook 2003 look and feel. Fuzzy Duck is a freeware RSS, Atom and RDF news reader. GreatNews is a powerful RSS reader emphasising on usability. News Bobbin is a freeware that scrolls the latest customizable headlines on the bottom of your desktop. Nutshell Freeware, multi-window skinnable RSS reader with optional Ticker bar. RSSBandit is an RSS/Atom aggregator written with the .NET Framework. Snarfer is a freeware state of the art lightning fast RSS/Atom/XML reader. wTicker RSS reader. Many Features. FeedAmasser A Light Weight RSS Feed Reader. WinRSS A freeware RSS/Atom aggregator for Windows, which uses your browser to display the news, and also balloon tooltips. KlipFolio Is a small, smart and very configurable RSS Dashboard. KlipFolio can be used to monitor anything you want online–like weather, stocks, Hotmail, news, RSS feeds and even auctions. Feedn Read Feedn Read (FnR) is a free Java based open source newsfeed reader. It is powered by the Sun ROME syndication framework and therefore supports all current formats. Touchstone Touchstone is a heads-up-display that treats RSS less like news and more like an alerts/updates mechanism. Stay up-to-date with web-based apps (Web 2.0) while you work without having to bury your head in a news reader. Investor Vista Webfeed aggregator designed specifically for investors. Unique system which generates Stock Feed News charts. akregator is a KDE news feed aggregator. blam is a GNOME RSS aggregator written in C. liferea is a GTK/GNOME-based news aggregator. raggle is a console RSS aggregator written in Ruby. rawdog is the RSS Aggregator Without Delusions Of Grandeur. straw is another GNOME aggregator. Ticker is a GNUstep news aggregator for Atom and RSS feeds. Attensa Toolbar for Internet“>Internet Explorer Detect, preview and read RSS feeds and articles from a IE toolbar. Chrysanth NETime Channel is a free software that transforms your IE (Internet“>Internet Explorer) into a powerful RSS aggregator, thus enabling you to view any RSS, RDF or ATOM feeds directly inside your web browser as a nicely formatted web page. eDIY Web Hosting CMS Software Built in aggregration plugin for CMS websites. Internet“>Internet Explorer 7 currently in beta. Reads Atom and RSS. Madicon RSS Reader, an RSS/Atom reader for the groupware platform IBM Lotus Notes/Domino 6.x (or higher). Mozilla Firefox is a free-software web browser that can display feeds as bookmark folders. Mozilla Thunderbird is a free-software email and newsgroup client that can also read RSS and Atom feeds. My RSS Toolbar is toolbar for Internet“>Internet Explorer. Contains pre-defined list of feeds combined into categories. Built-in RSS Client its a Internet“>Internet Explorer plug-in for handling with RSS feeds. Opera web browser detects RSS links and integrates it with its email client functionality. While technically not an aggregator, the RSS Visualizer Quartz screen saver that comes with Mac OS X will display the ten most recent updates to any given RSS feed that you select in System Preferences. Safari, is a Mac OS X browser from Apple, comes with built-in support for RSS aggregation. Yoono A social bookmarking application with integrated news reader. (Microsoft Windows) Aggreg8, an open source Mozilla/Firefox extension licensed under the Mozilla Public License. The developer stopped working on it in 2004 and now recommends the use of Habari Xenu. Attensa RSS Firefox Extension Detect, preview and read RSS feeds and articles from the Firefox toolbar. Habari Xenu was a project originally based on Aggreg8 and is also an extension for Mozilla and Mozilla Firefox. NewsMonster is an RSS aggregator that runs inside a Mozilla-based web browser. Pluck Also available for Internet“>Internet Explorer. includes bookmark management. Sage is a lightweight RSS and Atom feed aggregator extension for Mozilla Firefox. Wizz RSS is a Firefox extension that supports all versions of RSS, Atom 0.3, Atom 1.0, GZIP compression, Podcast feeds and the feed: URI scheme. Also works as a Gmail notifier and can be used to publish feeds on any web site. Attensa for Outlook is a news reader that delivers newsfeeds directly into folders in Microsoft Outlook. It includes browser toolbars (for IE and Firefox) that make it easy to add and manage subscriptions. It supports attachments including Podcast audio files. Does not work with other than english Outlook versions. intraVnews is an RSS/Atom aggregator that runs in Outlook. Feeds are delivered into Outlook folders where they can be read alongside email. Does not work with Outlook 2000 (requires Outlook XP or 2003). NewsGator is a news aggregator that runs in Microsoft Outlook. It allows you to subscribe to various syndicated news feeds (such as weblogs, news sites, and so on) and have news from these sites be delivered right into your Outlook folders. RSS Popper is a news aggregator add-in for Outlook. News items delivered directly to Outlook as e-mails. No need to use a separate program for reading RSS anymore. All RSS/RDF/Atom formats are supported. Blog AlertFeed2Imap (uploads items as mails on an IMAP server)

FeedBlitz.comFeednationQueooRssFwdR-mailSqueet.com (100 FREE)Yahoo Alerts

RSS alerts delivered via email, IM, and SMS Centericq – instant messenger client that allows feed reading snownews – is a simple, open source, aggregator for the command line raggle – an open source ruby/ncurses based news reader theyoke – an ultra-simple, polite aggregrator designed for use on the command line Feed on Feeds (PHP and MySQL required) Gregarius Can be themed and supports plugins (PHP and a database like MySQL or SQLite required) LylinaMetaPlanet (PHP required and SQLite required) Newspipe Heavily customizable email-based news reader (Python required) Planet PlanetPython Desktop ServerreBlog (aggregator with ability to republish to your weblog) Online RSS ViewerRippy The AggregatorRnews (PHP and MySQL required) Urchin (Perl and MySQL required) rawdog an RSS Aggregator Without Delusions Of Grandeur (Python required) Newstouch Fast and customizable RSS reader for Symbian and Java phones. Feeds and images are compressed by a remote server. Articles are stored on the phone for offline viewing. FreeRange Communications Advanced RSS News and Blog Reader for mobile phones and PDAs. Supports off-line reading, built-in text browser, email. Works on nearly all phones – Java, Symbian, Blackberry, Palm, Windows Mobile. Go Mobile Solutions RSSToGo is an easy-to-use RSS reader for the Windows Mobile Platform Attensa Mobile RSS reader for phones and PDAs synchronizes with Attensa for OutlookAttensa OnlineNews Lite Free RSS reader for flash-enabled devices Resco News RSS/Atom aggregator for Symbian S60 phones Yahoo Mobile allows you to read RSS feeds from your My Yahoo page ZapTXT Uses SMS messages to send updates from RSS feeds you specify FeederReader FeederReader is a full-featured RSS Aggregator with podcast listening and enclosure support, running on Windows Mobile

NomadReader
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Welcome to the Health Behavior News Service, a resource for the news media and public to find the best and most recent evidence-based scientific research to help people make decisions about their health and health care. HBNS monitors articles in peer-reviewed journals and research by nonprofit, public- and private-sector producers of systematic evidence reviews. We turn the research into readable, accurate and useful news stories on health promotion, disease prevention, chronic conditions and health care services. Registration for this service is free, but limited to newspaper, magazine, broadcast, newsletter, freelance and Internet“>Internet journalists. On this site you will find links to stories we have done on articles appearing in 30 peer-reviewed social science journals since 1999; links to our popular Facts of Life monthly issue briefs; and a Journalists Only premium area containing stories embargoed for release and tools for making better use of evidence. We are an independent, nonprofit program of the Center for the Advancement of Health, which receives unrestricted funding from The Annenberg Foundation and the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. Editorial control of the news service is solely in the hands of the editor. HBNS has been designated a best practice for communication of science and technology to the public by the National Institute of Standards and Technology and the U.S. Department of Energy. We issue embargoed news by e-mail, but we encourage you to bookmark and visit this site, both to keep up to date and to look for background material on long-term projects. By registering for access to the premium site or by receiving e-mailed stories, you agree to abide by the embargoes, namely that none of the information may be printed, posted or broadcast before the embargo time and date. The Prepared Patient, a series from the Health Behavior News Service, is intended to help Americans participate more fully in their health care. Each month we will explore a new topic to prepare readers for productive encounters with the health care system: whether understanding the need for check-ups, to managing their own chronic diseases, to getting the most value from doctor-patient interactions. Every weekday by 10:30 a.m. Eastern time, we produce the Health Behavior News Digest, linking you to the top stories in that mornings news media from around the world. The stories are on the latest evidence-based health research and on policy that affects how people make decisions about their own health care. We monitor news events daily to provide background information and interview ideas for breaking stories and to suggest newsworthy trends in health behavior for feature stories. We also alert journalists by e-mail when a previous study or evidence review might be of use in contextualizing a breaking story. We refer journalists to experts who are part of a national network of scientists conducting the research that can lead to better health practices by consumers, physicians, employers and managed care organizations.

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Research In Motion tops earnings expectationsMerrill Lynch may receive a 5 bln cash infusion from a state-owned Singapore investment firm according tothe WSJQuarterly expiration of stock options, index options, index futures and single stock futuresConsumer spending stronger than expected, month over month core PCE inflation in line with expecationsWeakairlines; electronic mfg. services[BRIEFING.COM] Christmas Eve is just around the corner, but the Stock%20Market”>stock market was already in a festive mood on Friday as another strong earnings report from a leading technology company and a better than expected report on personal spending in November served as underpinnings for a broad-based rally.All ten economic sectors closed the session higher. The gains were substantive, too, as the defensive-oriented utilities sector (0.8) was the only sector that gained less than 1.0.Research In Motion (RIMM 118.63, 11.64), the maker of the Blackberry, set the tone for a strong opening when it followed up an impressive earnings report from Oracle (ORCL 22.71, 0.61) with an impressive report and outlook of its own. The stock surged 11 and sparked a rally in other large-cap tech stocksthathad the Nasdaq Composite in a leadership position all session onwhat was a quadruple witching options expiration day.Consumer electronics retailer Circuit City (CC 4.75, -1.91) suffered a much different fate as it delivered an abysmalthird quarter earningsreport that left investors heading for the exit in droves. Its weakness didnt derail the consumer discretionary sector (1.4), though, as Circuit Citys issues were deemed to be more company-specific than anything else in light of the strong report heard earlier in the week from competitor Best BuyThe energy (2.4) and materials (2.4) sectors were the biggest gainers Friday as the aforementioned spending report had participants feeling better about the economic growth outlook.Specifically, personal consumption expenditures, which account for 72 of GDP, surged 1.1 in November and 0.5 after adjusting for inflation. The report substantiated the understanding that the consumer continues to spend in the face of macro headwinds and helped quell recession concerns for the time being. Cyclical stocks, accordingly, were among Fridays top performers.The most influential gainer, however, was the financial sector. It jumped 2.0 as news that Merrill Lynch (MER 55.54, 1.04) might receive a 5 billion capital injection from a Singapore state-owned investment firm, and a report that plans for an SIV rescue fund were being abandoned due to a lack of interest, drove a belief that the worst of the credit crisis has past. That thinking has been proven wrong before, but on Friday, it was the prevailing belief.The stock rally took some wind out of the Treasury market which suffered losses across the yield curve. The benchmark 10-year note fell nearly a point, which boosted its yield to 4.16.Advancing issues outpaced declining issues by a healthy margin at the NYSE and Nasdaq. Trading volume, meanwhile, was quite heavy on account of the expiration of stock options, index options, index futures, and single stock futures.[BRIEFING.COM] The Stock%20Market”>Stock Market is trading at its intraday high as we head into the final half hour of the trading week. It has been a rollercoaster trading week, but the major indices are set to finish with decent gains.Wall Street Journal is reporting that sources said that banks have scrapped plans to create a fund to bailout troubled Structured Investment Vehicles (SIV). BankofAmericaCitigroupJPMorgan (JPM 43.90, 0.57) have been working since Sept. to set up the fund, but lack of interest has led to the decision to drop the plan.Next week, in observance of the Christmas holiday, the Stock%20Market”>stock market closes early at 13:00 ET on Monday, and is closed on Tuesday.[BRIEFING.COM] After heading sideways for most of the last half-hour, stocks are back on the rise as the major indices hit fresh intraday highs. All ten major sectors are posting a gain of at least 1. The SP 500 Retailing Index, which has struggled this year (down 21), is posting a decent gain of 1.3Fitch Ratingshas confirmed that it has placed MBIA (MBI 19.74, -0.21) on rating watch negative, pending MBIA raising additional capital. Fitch said it anticipates affirming MBIAs ratings with astable outlook if additional capital is raised within 4-6 weeks. MBIA, down 72 year-to-date, is one of the many companiesthat have been rockedby the credit market turmoil this year.[BRIEFING.COM] The major indices edge higher, led by relative strength in the energy sector (2.4). Crude oil has extended its gains, now up 2.8 to 93.65 per barrel.29 of the 30 components in the Dow Jones Industrial average are trading higher. IBM3MBoeing (BA 89.67, 1.48) are leading the way. The only stock posting a loss is Honeywell (HON 60.64, -0.05), although it is basically flat.[BRIEFING.COM] The Stock%20Market”>stock market is heading sideways. Trading has been pretty uneventful in afternoon trade. The breadth of the market is bullish, with advancers outpacing decliners by a 2.5-to-1 margin on the NYSE. The Nasdaq comes in at a smaller 1.8-to-1 margin.Bear Stearns (BSC 89.23, -2.19) is a notable laggard on a day when investment banks brokerages are up 2.7. Fitch Ratings said that it credit rating outlook on Bear remains negative, according to the AP. Yesterday, Bear reported a much larger loss than expected, but its stock still closed higher.Meanwhile, CNBC commentator said sources are telling him Bear is in talks to receive an additional capital infusionfrom Fortress Investment Group.[BRIEFING.COM] The Stock%20Market”>stock market is holding steady. After a burst of trading volume in the early-going, volume has tapered off, but should pick up toward the close due to more expirations. Despite the decrease in volume in afternoon trade, the NYSE is approaching yesterdays total trade of 1.37 billion shares.There is more bad news regarding bond insurers today, although it does not appear to be affecting the market as much as yesterday. Fitch Ratings is putting Ambacs (ABK 26.55, -1.15) credit ratings under review due to the companys 32.2 billion in exposure to collateralized debt obligation, according to Bloomberg.com.[BRIEFING.COM] The market contoinues to sport some nice-sized gains, underpinned by strength in the materials (1.9), industrial (1.8), telecom (1.7), and technology (1.0)sectors.Looking within the market, we notice that small-cap stocks are outperforming today. The Russell 2000 is up 1.5 versus a gain of 1.2 for the Russell 1000. There is a trading phenomenon that has been labeled the January Effect, which has its roots in mid-December and is characterized by small-cap issues outperforming large-cap stocks through a good portion of the first half of a new year.The outperformance, when it happens, tends to be the strongest in January; hence, the January Effect moniker. There are no guarantees this trading pattern will play out each year, but thus far, we have seen some vestiges of it as the Russell 2000 is up 5.5 since Mondays close versus a gain of 2.2 for the Russell 1000 over the same period.[BRIEFING.COM] Equites are holding steady modestly below their intraday highs. The same can not be said for bonds, which have slipped. The 10-year is now down 27 ticks, pushing its yield up to 4.15Walgreen (WAG 38.74, 2.49) are up nearly 7 after the company pleased investors by producing better than expected earnings results for its fiscal first quarter. Walgreens earned 0.02 per share, topping the consensus estimate by two cents. Comparable same-store sales were up 5.4.[BRIEFING.COM] Stocks are trading considerably higher at the East Coast lunch hour, fueled by a better than expected earnings report from Research In Motion (RIMM 119.22, 12.23), speculation about a Merrill Lynch (MER 55.23, 0.73) cash infusion and a economic report that indicates strong consumer spending.Research In Motion, the maker of Blackberry devices, boosted sentiment after last night reporting earnings of 0.63 per share, nearly double year ago earnings and topping the consensus estimate by a penny.Also giving the market a lift, a Wall Street Journal article states that Merrill Lynch is in advanced talks to receive a 5 billion cash infusion from a state-owned Singapore investment fund. The stock is off its highs, but is slill posting a respectable up1.3 gainon the news. Other financial firms have recently announced investments from overseas government owned funds, including CitigroupUBSMorganStanleyThe Dept. of Commerce released its November Personal Income and Consumption report. Personal spending rose a strong 1.1, well above the 0.7 expected increase. Adjusted for inflation spending still rose 0.5, which is solid considering the headwinds the overall economy is currently facing. This indicator important as consumer spending accounts for 72 of the GDP.Meanwhile, the report indicated personal income rose 0.4, slightly less than the consensus estimate that called for a 0.5 rise. Core PCE, the Feds favorite measure of inflation, rose 0.2, which was in line with expectations.Most importantly, this report does not indicate any sign of a recession.All ten economic sectors are trading higher, led by materials (2.0), and energy (2.0). Financials (0.6), the only sector to finish in the red yesterday, are underperforming on a relative basis. [BRIEFING.COM] The major indices are vacilating near their best levels of the session, as they continue to post strong gains. Yesterday, the three major indices all finished in the green, but only the Nasdaq managed to close with a significant gain, buoyed by a strong earnings report from OracleCircuit City (CC 5.04, -1.62) are getting stomped today, as investors show disappointment following the retailers weak earnings report. Excluding non-recurring items, the companys loss amounted to 0.64 per share, well below Wall Streets expectations that called for a loss of 0.31. The results are in contrast to competitor Best Buys (BBY 52.63, 0.96) better than expected earnings.[BRIEFING.COM] Stocks ease a bit, as they trade slightly below their best levels of the session. All three major indices have advanced at least 1. With todays gains, the major indices are set to finish the week in the green.The energy sector (2.0) has sprung into the leadership position, aided by a 1.5 rise in the price ofcrude oil.Meanwhile, Treasuries have been under selling pressure. The 10-year is down 10 ticks, sending its yield up to 4.10.[BRIEFING.COM] Stocks extend their gains after the Fed releases the results of its second 20 billion auction. This auction had 73 institutional bidders, and resulted in a yield of 4.67. This yield is well above the 4.17 minimum the Fed put in place, but below the 4.75 discount rate that banks would normally have to borrow at. Also, the Fed announced it plans to continue biweekly auctions as long as necessary to alleviate pressures in short term funding markets. Originally, the Fed only planned four auctions.Volume is noticeably higher today, fueled by quadruple witching. Quadruple witching is the quarterly expiration of stock options, index options, index futures and single stock futures. Typically, this event typicallyincreases volume and volatility as tradersdecide what to do with their positions.Briefing.com is the leading Internet“>Internet provider of live market analysis for U.S. Stock, U.S. Bond, and world FX market participants.

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Director:David SilvermanWriters:James L. BrooksMatt GroeningmoreRelease Date:moreGenre:AnimationComedymoreTagline:

See our family. And feel better about yours. morePlot Outline: After Homer accidentally pollutes the towns water supply, Springfield is encased in a gigantic dome by the EPA and the Simpsons family are declared fugitives.

morePlot Synopsis:View full synopsis. (warning may contain spoilers)Plot Keywords omeSquirrelFastFoodHomosexualSelfReferentialmoreAwards:

Nominated for Golden Globe. Another 1 win 7 nominations moreUser Comments: Im so glad it didnt suck moremore Rated PG-13 for irreverent humor throughout.

Parents Guide:View content advisory for parentsRuntime:Country:USALanguage:EnglishColor:ColorAspect Ratio:moreSound Mix:DTSDolby DigitalCertification:Singapore:PG(cut)Australia:PGNetherlands:6Hong Kong:IIAUSA:PG-13(certificate 43622)UK:PGSwitzerland:7(canton of Geneva)Finland:K-7Chile:TESouth Korea:12Switzerland:7(canton of Vaud)Taiwan:PG-12Canada:PG(Alberta/British Columbia/Manitoba/Ontario)South Africa:PGSingapore:NC-16Peru:PTMalaysia:U(cut)Norway:7France:UCanada:G(Quebec)Brazil:12Argentina:AtpIreland:PGSweden:7Germany:6Portugal:M/6Denmark:7MOVIEmeter: Company:Twentieth Century-Fox Film CorporationmoreTrivia:

For the entire month of July 2007, as part of a campaign to hype the July 27th opening of the movie, 12 7-Elevens stores all over North America changed their names to Kwik-E-Marts, and begun selling products like Buzz Cola, KrustyOs cereal, Radioactive Man comics, and Squishees – including WooHoo Blue Vanilla flavor. One store in Burbank, CA reported selling over 57,000 sprinkled donuts matching the one featured in the movie poster. Only 1 of the 12 locations was in Canada – located in Coquitlam, British Columbia (a suburb near Vancouver). moreGoofs: Continuity: When Marge closes the curtain in the motel room the other curtain changes from being open and closed between shots. moreQuotes:shouting from church floor] Twisted Tail… A thousand eyes… Trapped forever

moreMovie Connections:The Wizard of OzmoreSoundtrack:more
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Hypertension

, commonly referred to as high blood pressureHTN, is a medical condition in which the blood pressure While it is formally called arterial hypertension, the word hypertension without a qualifier usually refers to arterial hypertension. Hypertension can be classified as either essentialsecondary. Essential hypertension indicates that no specific medical cause can be found to explain a patients condition. Secondary hypertension indicates that the high blood pressure is a result of (i.e. secondary to) another condition, such as kidney diseasetumorsadrenal gland). Persistent hypertension is one of the risk factors for strokesheart attacksheart failureaneurysm, and is a leading cause of chronic renal failure. Even moderate elevation of arterial blood pressure leads to shortened life expectancy. At severely high pressures, defined as mean arterial pressures 50 or more above average, a person can expect to live no more than a few years unless appropriately treated.Hypertension is considered to be present when a persons systolic blood pressure is consistently 140mmHg or greater, and/or their diastolic blood pressure is consistently 90mmHg or greater. Recently, as of 2003, the

Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure

has defined blood pressure 120/80 mmHg to 139/89 mmHg as prehypertension. Prehypertension is not a disease category; rather, it is a designation chosen to identify individuals at high risk of developing hypertension. The Mayo Clinic website specifies blood pressure is normal if its below 120/80 but that some data indicate that 115/75 mm Hg should be the gold standard. In patients with diabetes mellituskidney disease studies have shown that blood pressure over 130/80 mmHg should be considered high and warrants further treatment. Even higher numbers are considered diagnostic using home blood pressure monitoring devices.Sodium is an environmental factor that has received the greatest attention. Approximately 60 of the essential hypertension population is responsive to sodium intake. This is due to the fact that increasing amounts of salt in a persons bloodstream causes the body to draw more water, increasing the pressure on the blood vessel walls.The effects of excess amounts of salt–a compound containing 2 minerals, sodium and chloride–in the body depend on how much excess salt (or salty foods) is eaten in a specific time versus how well the kidneys functioned. When the salt content of the blood elevates, water is attracted from around the cells (in muscles and organs) and into the blood, in order to dilute blood salinity. There is salt as sodium outside every cell in your body. When the salt content of the fluid around your cells goes up, it attracts water from your blood and swelling occurs. Your kidneys are responsible for regulating salt and water levels in your body. When salt and water levels increase around cells, the excess is drawn into your blood, which is filtered by your kidneys. Your kidneys remove excess salt and water from your blood, both of which are excreted as urine. When your kidneys dont work well, fluid builds up around cells and in your blood. Your heart is the pump that pushes your blood around. If there is more fluid in your blood, your heart has to work harder and your blood pressure can go up because there is more pressure on the walls of your blood vessels. Your heart can get weaker or worn out from the extra work.Salt has been blamed in the past as causing high blood pressure. New research suggests that too little calcium or potassium also has an impact on blood pressure.Reninenzymejuxtaglomerular apparatus of the kidney and linked with aldosterone in a negative feedback loop. The range of renin activity observed in hypertensive subjects tends to be broader than in normotensive individuals. In consequence, some hypertensive patients have been defined as having low-renin and others as having essential hypertension. Low-renin hypertension is more common in African Americans than Caucasians and may explain why they tend to respond better to diuretic therapy than drugs that interfere with the renin-angiotensin system.High Renin levels predispose to Hypertension: Increased Renin Increased

Angiotensin IIVasoconstrictionADHAldosteroneSodiumabsorptionKidneys

(DCT and CD) Increased Blood PressureInsulinhormonepancreas. Its main purpose is to regulate the levels of glucoseantagonisticallyglucagonnegative feedback loops. Insulin also exhibits vasodilatory properties. In normotensive individuals, insulin may stimulate sympathetic activity without elevating mean arterial pressure. However, in more extreme conditions such as that of the metabolic syndrome, the increased sympathetic neural activity may over-ride the vasodilatory effects of insulin. Insulin resistance and/or hyperinsulinemia have been suggested as being responsible for the increased arterial pressure in some patients with hypertension. This feature is now widely recognized as part of syndrome Xmetabolic syndromeSleep apnea is a common, under-recognized cause of hypertension. It is often best treated with nocturnal nasal continuous positive airway pressure, but other approaches include the

Mandibular advancement splintUPPPtonsilectomyadenoidectomysinus surgery

Another claimed cause of hypertension is the misalignment of vertebrae within the spinal column, specifically the atlas vertebraJournal of Human Hypertension published the results of a clinically controlled trial in which patients with hypertension and a misaligned atlas vertebra were chosen to undergo chiropractic treatment. The study showed a significant lowering of blood pressure in hypertensive patients after only one chiropractic adjustment of the atlas vertebra. The study showed a decrease in blood pressure immediately following the adjustment as well as a full eight weeks following the adjustment. The decrease in blood pressure was equal to taking two blood-pressure drugsHypertension is one of the most common complex disorders, with genetic heritability Data supporting this view emerge from animal studies as well as in population studies in humans. Most of these studies support the concept that the inheritance is probably multifactorial or that a number of different genetic defects each have an elevated blood pressure as one of their phenotypicMore than 50 genes have been examined in association studies with hypertension, and the number is constantly growing.There are some anecdotal or transient causes of high blood pressure. These are not to be confused with the disease called hypertension in which there is an intrinsic physiopathological mechanism as described below.Only in a small minority of patients with elevated arterial pressure, can a specific cause be identified. These individuals will probably have an endocrine or renal defect that, if corrected, could bring blood pressure back to normal values.Most of the secondary mechanisms associated with hypertension are generally fully understood, and are outlined at secondary hypertension. However, those associated with essential (primary) hypertension are far less understood. What is known is that cardiac output is raised early in the disease course, with total peripheral resistance (TPR) normal; over time cardiac output drops to normal levels but TPR is increased. Three theories have been proposed to explain this:It is also known that hypertension is highly heritable and polygenic (caused by more than one gene) and a few candidate genes have been postulated in the etiology of this condition.Hypertension is usually found incidentally – case finding – by healthcare professionals during a routine checkup. The only test for hypertension is a blood pressure measurement. Hypertension in isolation usually produces no symptoms although some people report headaches, fatigue, dizziness, blurred vision, facial flushing or tinnitusMalignant hypertension (or accelerated hypertension) is distinct as a late phase in the condition, and may present with headaches, blurred vision and end-organ damage.Hypertension is often confused with mental tension, stress and anxiety. While chronic anxiety and/or irritability is associated with poor outcomes in people with hypertension, it alone does not cause it. Accelerated hypertension is associated with somnolence, confusion, visual disturbances, and nausea and vomiting (hypertensive encephalopathy). Hypertension is rarely severe enough to cause symptoms. These typically only surface with a systolic blood pressurediastolic blood pressure over 120 mmHg. These pressures without signs of end-organ damage (such as renal failure) are termed accelerated hypertension. When end-organ damage is possible or already ongoing, but in absence of raised intracranial pressurehypertensive emergency. Hypertension under this circumstance needs to be controlled, but prolonged hospitalization is not necessarily required. When hypertension causes increased intracranial pressure, it is called malignant hypertension. Increased intracranial pressure causes papilledemaophthalmoscopicretinaWhile elevated blood pressure alone is not an illness, it often requires treatment due to its short- and long-term effects on many organs. The risk is increased for:Although few Women“>women of childbearing age have high blood pressure, up to 10 develop hypertension of pregnancy. While generally benign, it may herald three complications of pregnancy: pre-eclampsiaHELLP syndromeeclampsia. Follow-up and control with medication is therefore often necessary.As with adults, blood pressure is a variable parameter in children. It varies between individuals and within individuals from day to day and at various times of the day. The epidemic of childhood obesity, the risk of developing left ventricular hypertrophy, and evidence of the early development of atherosclerosis in children would make the detection of and intervention in childhood hypertension important to reduce long-term health risks; however, supporting data are lacking.Most childhood hypertension, particularly in preadolescents, is secondary to an underlying disorder. Renal parenchymal disease is the most common (60 to 70 percent) cause of hypertension. Adolescents usually have primary or essential hypertension, making up 85 to 95 percent of cases. Diagnosis of hypertension is generally on the basis of a persistently high blood pressure. Usually this requires three separate measurements at least one week apart. Exceptionally, if the elevation is extreme, or end-organ damage is present then the diagnosis may be applied and treatment commenced immediately.Obtaining reliable blood pressure measurements relies on following several rules and understanding the many factors that influence blood pressure readingFor instance, measurements in control of hypertension should be at least 1 hour after caffeine, 30 minutes after smoking and without any stress. Cuff size is also important. The bladder should encircle and cover two-thirds of the length of the arm. The patient should be sitting for a minimum of five minutes. The patient should not be on any adrenergic stimulants, such as those found in many cold medications.When taking manual measurements, the person taking the measurement should be careful to inflate the cuff suitably above anticipated systolic pressure. The person should inflate the cuff to 200 mmHg and then slowly release the air while palpating the radial pulse. After one minute, the cuff should be reinflated to 30 mmHg higher than the pressure at which the radial pulse was no longer palpable. A stethoscope should be placed lightly over the brachial artery. The cuff should be at the level of the heart and the cuff should be deflated at a rate of 2 to 3 mmHg/s. Systolic pressure is the pressure reading at the onset of the soundsKorotkoff (Phase one). Diastolic pressure is then recorded as the pressure at which the sounds disappear (K5) or sometimes the K4 point, where the sound is abruptly muffled. Two measurements should be made at least 5 minutes apart, and, if there is a discrepancy of more than 5 mmHg, a third reading should be done. The readings should then be averaged. An initial measurement should include both arms. In elderly patients who particularly when treated may show orthostatic hypotension, measuring lying sitting and standing BP may be useful. The BP should at some time have been measured in each arm, and the higher pressure arm preferred for subsequent measurements.BP varies with time of day, as may the effectiveness of treatment, and archetypes used to record the data should include the time taken. Analysis of this is rare at present.Automated machines are commonly used and reduce the variability in manually collected readings . Routine measurements done in medical offices of patients with known hypertension may incorrectly diagnose 20 of patients with uncontrolled hypertension Home blood pressure monitoring can provide a measurement of a persons blood pressure at different times throughout the day and in different environments, such as at home and at work. Home monitoring may assist in the diagnosis of high or low blood pressure. It may also be used to monitor the effects of medication or lifestyle changes taken to lower or regulate blood pressure levels.Home monitoring of blood pressure can also assist in the diagnosis of white coat hypertensionAmerican Heart Association states, You may have whats called white coat hypertension; that means your blood pressure goes up when youre at the doctors office. Monitoring at home will help you measure your true blood pressure and can provide your doctor with a log of blood pressure measurements over time. This is helpful in diagnosing and preventing potential health problems.Once the diagnosis of hypertension has been made it is important to attempt to exclude or identify reversible (secondary) causes.Tests are undertaken to identify possible causes of secondary hypertension, and seek evidence for end-organ damage to the heart itself or the eyes (retina) and kidneys. Diabetes and raised Cholesterol“>cholesterol levels being additional risk factors for the development of cardiovascular disease are also tested for as they will also require management.Blood tests commonly performed include:Additional tests often include:The level of blood pressure regarded as deleterious has been revised down during years of epidemiological studies. A widely quoted and important series of such studies is the Framingham Heart Study carried out in an American town: Framingham, Massachusetts. The results from Framingham and of similar work in Busselton, Western Australia have been widely applied. To the extent that people are similar this seems reasonable, but there are known to be genetic variations in the most effective drugs for particular sub-populations. Recently (2004), the Framingham figures have been found to overestimate risks for the UK population considerably. The reasons are unclear. Nevertheless the Framingham work has been an important element of UK health policy.In a summary of recent research Jules P. Harrell, Sadiki Hall, and James Taliaferro describe how a growing body of research has explored the impact of encounters with racismdiscrimination on physiological activity. Several of the studies suggest that higher blood pressure levels are associated with the tendency not to recall or report occurrences identified as racist and discriminatory. In other words, failing to recognize instances of racism has a direct impact on the blood pressure of the person experiencing the racist event. Investigators have reported that physiological arousal is associated with laboratory analogues of ethnic discrimination and mistreatment.The interaction between high blood pressure and racism has also been documented in studies by Claude Steele, Joshua Aronson, and Steven Spencer on what they term stereotype threatChiropractic, which treats disorders by diagnosing and treating mechanical disorders of the spine, has shown positive results in the treatment of hypertension. The Journal of Human Hypertension published the results of a clinically controlled trial in which patients with hypertension and a misaligned atlas vertebra were chosen to undergo chiropractic treatment. The study showed a significant lowering of blood pressure in hypertensive patients after only one chiropractic adjustment of the atlas vertebra. The study showed a decrease in blood pressure immediately following the adjustment as well as a full eight weeks following the adjustment. Blood pressure in the group receiving chiropractic was lowered by an average of 17mmHg BP systolic and 10mmHg diastolic BP. The decrease in blood pressure was equal to taking two antihypertensivedrugsThere are many classes of medications for treating hypertension, together called antihypertensives, which by varying means act by lowering blood pressure. Evidence suggests that reduction of the blood pressure by 5-6 mmHg can decrease the risk of stroke by 40, of coronary heart disease by 15-20, and reduces the likelihood of dementia, heart failure, and mortality from vascular disease.The aim of treatment should be blood pressure control to diabetes or kidney disease (some medical professionals recommend keeping levels below 120/80 mmHg).[4] Each added drug may reduce the systolic blood pressure by 5-10 mmHg, so often multiple drugs are necessary to achieve blood pressure control.Commonly used drugs include:randomized controlled trial by the Veterans Affairs Cooperative Study Group on Antihypertensive Agents reported the influence of patient age and race on the proportion of patients whose blood pressure was controlled by different agents.The effect of age and race are in part due to differences in plasma reninWhich type of many medications should be used initially for hypertension has been the subject of several large studies and various national guidelines.Regarding cardiovascular outcomes, the ALLHAT study showed a slightly better outcome and cost-effectiveness for the thiazidechlortalidone compared to other anti-hypertensives in an ethnically mixed population. Whilst a subsequent smaller study (ANBP2) did not show this small difference in outcome and actually showed a slightly better outcome for ACE-inhibitors in older white male patients.Whilst thiazides are cheap, effective, and recommended as the best first-line drug for hypertension by many experts, they are not prescribed as often as some newer drugs. Arguably, this is because they are off-patent and thus rarely promoted by the drug industry. Due to their metabolic impact (hypercholesterinemia, impairment of glucose tolerance, increased risk of developing Diabetes mellitus type 2), the use of thiazides as first line treatment for essential hypertension has been repeatedly questioned and strongly discouraged. Physicians may start with non-thiazide antihypertensive medications if there is a compelling reason to do so. An example is the use of ACE-inhibitors in diabetic patients who have evidence of kidney disease, as they have been shown to both reduce blood pressure and slow the progression of diabetic nephropathy In patients with coronary artery disease or a history of a heart attack, beta blockers and ACE-inhibitors both lower blood pressure and protect heart muscle over a lifetime, leading to reduced mortality.beta-blockerstype 2 diabetes led to their downgrading to fourth-line therapy in the United Kingdom in June 2006, in the revised national guidelines.

Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure

(JNC 7) in the United States recommends starting with a thiazide diuretic if single therapy is being initiated and another medication is not indicated.

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The Jewelry tradition of Pakistan“>Pakistan is a combination of tradition and modern designs and techniques. In Pakistan“>Pakistan, jewelry is worn by all Women“>women, sometimes even men, irrespective of their social status. It communicates a message of love, hate, power, hierarchy and marriage. Gems and semi-precious stones are worn not only for the fashion purpose but, they are also worn under the prescription of astrologers and spiritual leaders. These gems and stones are believed to affect ones future and destiny and believed to have strong influence on the live of a person. These people wear particular stone or Gem, especially prescribed to them to protect them from evil.Women“>Women of Pakistan“>Pakistan are great admirers of jewelry because jewelry is taken as a status of a person in the society and is counted as the wealth of Women“>women. The upper rich class wears gold jewelry with diamonds, rubies, emeralds and pearls. Less wealthy wear gold with less precious stones, whereas poor class wear jewelry made of silver and base metal. Since jewelry shows the status and wealth of Women“>women, hence gold has an esteemed place as an investment.Therefore in Pakistan“>Pakistan you will find even an impoverished individual wearing at least ear studs that are or look like gold. Expensive jewels are not ceremonial symbols in Pakistan“>Pakistan, even though they are used in abundance in big ceremonies such as weddings when bride is loaded with heavy jewelry, but Women“>women and some men too, wear it simply to show their wealth, and to impress their friends. Women“>Women wear jewelry with pride and look after them so that it can be handed down generation in the family. In this tradition, jewelry is usually worn by married Women“>women whereas widow hardly displays any form of jewelry.History of Pakistan“>Pakistan shows that sub-continent of which Pakistan“>Pakistan was a part, was referred as the Golden Bird, because it was the largest importer of Gold in the world. Sub-continent was the principle production center for beads by 3000 B.C. sub-continent was the superior trade route because it was rich in mines and had large quantities of diamonds, rubies, pearls and gold.Pakistan“>Pakistan has come under variety of religious, social and political influences. And Pakistan“>Pakistan jewelry is the true mirror of its past, reflecting the social and historical change. The present Pakistan“>Pakistan jewelry is the combination of the jewelry of the villages which is reminiscent of the ornaments of Moenjodaro and Harrapa-a sophisticated urban civilization which flourished between the years 3000 and 1800 B.C., and is one of the most highly developed civilization of the ancient world, and of the Muslim designs introduced in the 16th century by the Mughal Emperors.The traditional jewelry of Pakistan“>Pakistan is timeless and hand-made. They seem fresh and distinguished to people today in industrial societies. Traditional ethnic jewelry is made to withstand daily usage and therefore it is fabricated from heavier metals.Silver jewelry is fashionable now in cities as well. Every gold design is also copied in silver by the city shops.The craft of making jewelry is done by a specific groups and casts of people called sonars. These sonars inherit the skill and methods by direct descent. The tradition which survived through centuries. The skill is handed down from father to son, and son is taught this skill at a very young age, and by the time he is grown up he becomes an expert in this skill. The Pakistani jewelers produce a perfectly balanced piece. These sonars can accommodate two diamonds or stones of different shapes with such dexterity that one can not distinguish it with a naked eye.The jewelers use different techniques. These designs and modes of techniques vary from region to region and the material used. The most popular technique is Kundan, which was introduced by Mughals in 16th century. The Kundan technique is used for forming very delicate stuff. First, a basic form of jewelry is created with hollow spaces where stones are inserted. Then it is filled with Lac (Resinous substance). Lines are engraved to hold different colors. First the colors, which require high temperature are filled and heated with fire. The other colors are applied which require less temperature, and fired until both sides are enameled properly. Then the stones are placed in their respective areas. The formed piece is then polished with a leather cloth. The jewelry produced by this technique is famous for its grace and beauty. These sonars have their own shops or stalls in the main market.Pakistan“>Pakistan is full of Gold and Silver jewelers. Now due to the increasing demand of Pakistan“>Pakistan traditional jewelry, this industry is now a full-fledged large scale organized industry. And Women“>women are so fond of wearing jewelry that a simple gold or silver ring or stud for ear or nose is a normal merchandise.

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the provision of welfare services by the stateideal model in which the state assumes primary responsibility for the welfarecitizens. This responsibility is comprehensive, because all aspects of welfare are considered; a safety net is not enough, nor are minimum standards. It is universal, because it covers every person as a matter of right.the provision of welfare in society. In many welfare states, especially in continental Europe, welfare is not actually provided by the state, but by a combination of independent, voluntary, mutualist and government services. The functional provider of benefits and services may be a centralstate government, a state-sponsored company or agency, a private corporationcharity or another form of non-profit organisation. However, this phenomenon has been more appropriately termed a welfare society, and the term welfare system has been used to describe the range of welfare state and welfare society mixes that are found. – the right to the basic necessities of life is a fundamental human right, and people should not be allowed to suffer unnecessarily through lack of provision. – helping others is a moral obligation in most cultures; charity and support for people who cannot help themselves are also widely thought to be moral choices. – the same amount of money will produce greater happiness in the hands of a less well-off person than if given to a well-off person; thus, redistributing wealth from the rich to the poor will increase the total happiness in society. – major world religions emphasize the importance of social organization rather than personal development alone. Religious obligations include the duty of charitysolidarity. However, before the welfare state in the UK, charitable donations were normally 10 of a persons income and the number of charities in the UK was enormous as was the amount of support given by them to the paupers. Therefore although this is fulfilled by a welfare state, it is actually a concept of welfare, not necessarily welfare provided by the state. – social programs perform a range of economic functions, including e.g. the regulation of demand and structuring the labour market. – social programs are used to promote objectives regarding educationfamilywork in certain cases, the private sector fails to meet social objectives or to deliver efficient production, due to such things as monopoliesoligopoliesasymmetric information – the money the state provides comes from the nations labor and natural resources through universal taxation, the rich manages the wealth that is often inherited, and do not necessarily contribute more than the average worker, therefore it is a matter of justice to provide for the private individual who cannot legally provide to himself. Further, there will also be members of societies who through disability, health problems, or other causes out of the individuals control, are unable to provide for themselves. – some services can be more efficiently paid for when bought in bulk by the government for the public, rather than purchased by individual consumers. The highway system, water distribution, the fire department, universal health, and national defense might be some examples.anti-crime – people with low incomes do not need to resort to crime to stay alive, thus reducing the crime rate. Empirical evidence indicates that welfare programs reduce property crime.

[2]moral (compulsion)libertariansnanny stateindividual freedom

, forcing the individual to subsidizeconsumption of others. They argue that social spending reduces the right of individuals to transfer some of their wealth to others, and is tantamount to a seizure of private property.reduced morality the introduction of the welfare state and benefits that support people who do not contribute to the national good, reduces the compulsion to contribute. Supporting single mothers with accommodation, benefits, rate rebates, etc slowly makes being a single mother a more acceptable life to lead despite the mounting evidence that it leads to Depression“>depression in the mothers and children. Without a welfare state, families would be forced to support non-contributing members which would ensure children were given an upbringing which strongly discouraged this way of life.Protestant Christians and an increasing number of Catholics also believe that only voluntary giving (through private charities) is virtuous. They hold personal responsibility to be a virtue, and they believe that a welfare state diminishes the capacity of individuals to develop this virtue.anti-regulatory – the welfare state is accused of imposing greater burdens on private businesses, of potentially slowing growth and creating unemploymentefficiency – the free market leads to more efficient and effective production and service delivery than state-run welfare programs. They argue that high social spending is costly and must be funded out of higher levels of taxationFriedrich Hayek, the market mechanism is much more efficient and able to respond to specific circumstances of a large number of individuals than when run by the state. An example of the inefficiency of the state is that in the UK, there is one non-teaching civil servant for every classroom in the country, whether they be administrators, managers, inspectors, etc.motivation and incentives – the welfare state may have undesirable effects on behavior, fostering dependency, destroying incentives and sapping motivation to work.charitable – by the state assuming a larger burden for the financial care of people, individuals may feel it is no longer necessary for them to donate to charities or give to philanthropies.managerial statecraftpaleoconservative view posits that the welfare state is part of an ongoing regime that remains in power, regardless of what political party holds a majority. It acts in the name of abstract goals, such as equality or positive rights, and uses its claim of moral superiority, power of taxation and wealth redistribution to keep itself in power. – state provided welfare normally incurs high tax economy, this in turn leads to people feeling protective over their earnings and therefore looking for ways to cheat the tax system to pay less tax. This in turn reduces overall morality. People dependent on welfare have been found by surveys to be more depressed and have a lower self esteem than working people, this in turn often leads to them feeling rejected, hopeless and/or abandoned by the populace at large, therefore they have a lower self of national unity of community responsibility and may turn to crime to get back at society or just fill the time.

Health careMixed economyNational Health ServiceNationalizationPublic ownershipPrivatizationSocial securitySocial stratificationSocial welfare provisionSocial workSwedish welfareFolkhemmetCorporate welfareSocial ProtectionFifth powerGould, Arthur (1993). Megginson, William L.; Jeffry M. Netter (June 2001). The Constitution of Liberty

(London: Routledge, 1960), p. 502, n. 12.

Smith, Munroe (December 1901). Four German Jurists. IV.

welfare state. OHara, Phillip Anthony (editor). Encyclopedia of political economy. Routledge 1999. p. 1245

Esping-Andersen, Gsta (1999). Rice, James Mahmud; Robert E. Goodin, Antti Parpo (September-December 2006). http://saudinf.com/main/h814.htmhttp://www.mofa.gov.sa/Detail.aspInSectionID1516InNewsItemID1746http://www.zmag.org/chomskyrepliesana.htm

Noam Chomsky on anarchist support for welfare state policies[1]Atkinson, A. B. (1995). Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Welfare Expenditure Report (Microsoft Excel Workbook), OECD, 2001.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2003). ISBN 041521291XCenter for Public PolicySocial Policy Virtual LibrarySocial Sciences Information GatewayRace and Welfare in the United StatesThe Welfare State: A CritiqueShavells criticism of social justice programmesKaplows criticism of social justice programmesWorld report on Welfare StateCentreflunk:: Hiding Your OptionsCentreflunk Forum:: Discussing Your Options

Centrelink:: Australias Welfare Payment Agency forum

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